Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) identifies and characterizes substances by measuring infrared light absorption by molecular vibrations. Using an interferometer and Fourier transform, it generates a unique absorption spectrum for each sample. Widely used in chemistry, biology, and materials science, FTIR provides detailed molecular information with minimal sample preparation.

Gas chromatography (GC) separates, identifies, and quantifies compounds in a mixture by vaporizing the sample and passing it through a column with a stationary phase, carried by an inert gas. Detectors like FID and MS generate signals to produce chromatograms. GC is vital in various fields for analyzing volatile and semi-volatile compounds.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures material mass changes with temperature or time under controlled atmospheres. It assesses thermal stability and composition by recording weight variations. TGA data, presented as thermograms, reveal decomposition, oxidation, and moisture loss. Widely used in polymers, pharmaceuticals, and materials science, TGA provides crucial insights into thermal properties and behavior.

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) measures light absorption and reflectance in the 200-800 nm range. Molecules absorb light at specific wavelengths, causing electronic transitions. A UV-Vis spectrometer records an absorption spectrum, indicating absorbance versus wavelength. Widely used in chemistry, biology, and environmental science, it quantifies analytes, studies reaction kinetics, and assesses compound purity.

A laboratory or industrial oven provides controlled heating for various purposes, such as drying, curing, annealing, and heat-treating samples. Vacuum ovens, in contrast, operate under reduced pressure, lowering boiling points and allowing processing at lower temperatures, beneficial for heat-sensitive materials. Conventional ovens suit general heating needs, while vacuum ovens are ideal for delicate tasks in industries like pharmaceuticals and electronics.