{"id":11197,"date":"2026-01-14T08:46:09","date_gmt":"2026-01-14T07:46:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/?post_type=articles&#038;p=11197"},"modified":"2026-01-29T08:20:39","modified_gmt":"2026-01-29T07:20:39","slug":"artificial-intelligence-and-history-introduction","status":"publish","type":"articles","link":"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/articles\/artificial-intelligence-and-history-introduction\/","title":{"rendered":"Artificial intelligence and history: an introduction\u00a0"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<section class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-free-section section\"><div class=\"container xl:max-w-screen-xl\">\n<p><strong>The use of AI for historical research can allow for more insightful access to sources, but many questions remain open about using AI to help create a historical narrative. C\u00b2DH assistant professor Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert and postdoctoral researcher Finola Finn share their thoughts on these challenges and their implications, both for current historians and those of the future.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A Microsoft Research study published in July 2025 listed historians among the occupations to face the biggest risk in terms of AI jeopardising their jobs. Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert has a strong opinion about this possibility: \u201cIt\u2019s bullshit.\u201d For now, he adds, it\u2019s absolutely not true, but such discourse can create social or political risks. \u201cIf a chatbot is able to generate texts about history that aren\u2019t good but good enough to fit the ideological point of view of one party, then there\u2019s a risk,\u201d he adds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<section class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-quote-people\">\n    <div class=\"quote-people\" role=\"group\">\n        <figure class=\"quote-people__body\">\n            <blockquote class=\"quote-people__blockquote\">\n    <span class=\"quote-people__quote\">\u201f<\/span>\n    If a chatbot is able to generate texts about history that aren\u2019t good but good enough to fit the ideological point of view of one party, then there\u2019s a risk.\u201d\n<\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-wrapper quote-people__figcaption\">\n<p class=\"quote-people__author wp-block-unilux-blocks-plain-text\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert<\/p><\/div>\n        <\/figure>\n    <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\n<p>Both Clavert and Finola Finn are interested in the way in which AI will impact the work of historians. Finn, a cultural historian who joined the C\u00b2DH in 2024, previously worked as the co-PI on the Machine Discovery and Creation project at Leibniz University Hannover, where she collaborated with philosophers to investigate the epistemological and ethical implications of using AI in historical and creative practices. The findings of this work, which she is continuing at C\u00b2DH, are available in several publications, including <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s43681-024-00440-7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><em>AI and Ethics<\/em><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/psa.2025.10123\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><em>Philosophy of Science<\/em><\/a>, and soon <a href=\"https:\/\/philsci-archive.pitt.edu\/26886\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><em>Cambridge Forum on AI: Culture and Society<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-dev4-reusable-blocks-image  object-fit--cover\">\n    \n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-block-image unilux-custom-image-block\"\n                alt=\"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert working with Finola Finn\"\n            src=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081641\/IMG_2340.jpg\"\n                srcset=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081641\/IMG_2340-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081641\/IMG_2340-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081641\/IMG_2340-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081641\/IMG_2340.jpg 1500w\"\n                style=\"object-position: 50.00% 45.00%; font-family: &quot;object-fit: cover; object-position: 50.00% 45.00%;&quot;; aspect-ratio: 3\/2; object-fit: cover; width: 100%;\"\n        loading=\"lazy\"\n\/>    <\/figure>\n\n\n<p>Clavert\u2019s research is increasingly focused on AI as a producer of primary sources and he has been analysing the intersection of collective memory and AI via chatbots. The managing editor of the<a href=\"https:\/\/journalofdigitalhistory.org\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"> Journal of Digital History<\/a>, he also co-founded the C\u00b2DH AI Working Group with his colleague Sean Takats, a full professor in digital history, over a year ago. This group uses a bottom-up approach to address AI issues and questions. Through a survey launched earlier this year, the group discovered that over 90% of the 60 respondents were using AI, while only four individuals stated they hadn\u2019t used any AI platforms. &nbsp;There\u2019s a wide range of AI experimentation within the C\u00b2DH, so the group has met regularly to keep on top of the discussion and has written an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/articles\/ai-manifesto\/\">AI Manifesto<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"has-text-align-left wp-block-unilux-blocks-heading\"        id=\"implications-for-historians\"\n    >\nImplications for historians<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>With machine learning and generative AI, historians have the possibility to apprehend sources more globally, even if the question around reproducibility of results is one that remains unanswered. There are also open questions in terms of how to deal with probabilistic systems. \u201cThe important thing is documentation. If historians are going to use AI in any way, then it\u2019s really important that we, as a community, come up with standardised ways of documenting what is done,\u201d Finn says, adding that transparency in one\u2019s findings is a foundational aspect when working in history, even when AI isn\u2019t used. She also points out that clarity is key, both in the design and use of AI. If&nbsp; chatbots are developed to help users access archives, for example, it\u2019s important to be clear on whether the chatbot is intended for navigating an archive or analysing its contents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are also risks around the use of AI for writing, including considerations around authorship, even potential plagiarism. Additionally, both Clavert and Finn are curious about whether AI will eventually standardise the way everyone writes, although they believe it\u2019s too soon to tell. Finn studies so-called conceptual distruptions, looking into how new technologies, including AI, put key concepts we use to understand scientific and creative practices under pressure. In her research, she has worked on a framework for how to attribute credit for images made using generative AI (later expanding the framework to texts and other outputs) and highlights the many agents involved along the way, from the user with a prompt to the model creating the output, the developers, plus all the individuals who created the training data. \u201cIt\u2019s very interesting seeing in the different contexts how the understanding of \u2018creator\u2019 shifts,\u201d she adds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The researchers also note that most of the AI being used tends to be Western-centric, and minority languages aren\u2019t yet well represented, although there is some experimentation taking place to try to make AI more inclusive and lingustically diverse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another potential impact of AI will be on public engagement, with AI-generated content providing \u201cinstant history\u201d, which the researchers say could shift the public\u2019s relationship with history and possibly their understanding about the complexity of how it is written.&nbsp; As Finn notes, \u201cThe historian\u2019s process involves many steps. It\u2019s very multi-layered, and there\u2019s very much a human element there in creating a narrative about the past.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\"><div class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-spacer is-spacer-size-sm\"><\/div>\n\n\n<section class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-quote-people\">\n    <div class=\"quote-people\" role=\"group\">\n        <figure class=\"quote-people__body\">\n            <blockquote class=\"quote-people__blockquote\">\n    <span class=\"quote-people__quote\">\u201f<\/span>\n    The historian\u2019s process involves many steps. It\u2019s very multi-layered, and there\u2019s very much a human element there in creating a narrative about the past.\u201d\n<\/blockquote>\n<div class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-wrapper quote-people__figcaption\">\n<p class=\"quote-people__author wp-block-unilux-blocks-plain-text\">Finola Finn<\/p><\/div>\n        <\/figure>\n    <\/div>\n<\/section><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\"><figure class=\"wp-block-dev4-reusable-blocks-image  object-fit--cover\">\n    \n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-block-image unilux-custom-image-block\"\n                alt=\"Finola Finn\"\n            src=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081844\/IMG_2366.jpg\"\n                srcset=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081844\/IMG_2366-200x300.jpg 200w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081844\/IMG_2366-683x1024.jpg 683w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081844\/IMG_2366-768x1152.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/7\/2026\/01\/29081844\/IMG_2366.jpg 1000w\"\n                style=\"object-position: 50.00% 50.00%; font-family: &quot;object-fit: cover; object-position: 50.00% 50.00%;&quot;; aspect-ratio: 2\/3; object-fit: cover; width: 75%;\"\n        loading=\"lazy\"\n\/>    <\/figure><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"has-text-align-left wp-block-unilux-blocks-heading\"        id=\"future-historians\"\n    >\nFuture historians<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Clavert describes the flipped classroom model as one way of working on critical thinking and problem-solving during classroom hours. While students may be using AI in varying degrees, \u201cwe have to find the right pedagological tools because the fact is that you can get pretty good results with a chatbot if you know how to write the question. But to write the question, you need to learn history in a good way. We need to teach students how to use AI, but it must be very progressive.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Both Clavert and Finn wonder how historians of the future will look back at current times, with so much AI-generated content, and are curious how they\u2019ll apply criticism to those sources, evaluate biases, etc. \u201cI think our traditional methods of source criticism are quite challenged there,\u201d Finn says.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Clavert agrees. \u201cIn 20 years, facing a primary source created today, it\u2019s going to be a challenge to determine what\u2019s the human or artificial part, what part was automated and what wasn\u2019t,\u201d he says. \u201cI don\u2019t know if we\u2019re facing something that will change all our methods, or something we can face with simple adaptations of our methods.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"py-48 first:pt-0 last:pb-0 wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-list\">\n    \n<h3 class=\"has-text-align-left wp-block-unilux-blocks-heading\"    >\nAuthor(s)<\/h3>\n<ul class=\"flex flex-wrap -mx-16 wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-item-wrapper\">\n    <li class=\"w-full md:w-1\/2 p-16 wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-item-automated\"><div class=\"ulux-card card-people bg-theme\"><div class=\"list-people bg-theme\">\n    <div class=\"list-people__container\">\n        <div class=\"list-people__visual\">\n            <figure class=\"wp-block-dev4-reusable-blocks-image\">\n                <!-- Template Image Component: default -->\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"w-full\" width=\"\" height=\"\" rel=\"\" alt=\"Assist. Prof Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric CLAVERT\" src=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--thumbnail 150w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--medium 300w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--medium_large 768w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--large 1024w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--1536x1536 1536w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwMjkyNDBfX0Zyw6lkw6lyaWMgQ0xBVkVSVA==--2048x2048 2048w\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><!-- end Image Component -->\n            <\/figure>\n        <\/div>\n        <div class=\"list-people__body\">\n            <h3 class=\"list-people__title\">Assist. Prof Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric CLAVERT<\/h3>\n            <p class=\"list-people__description\">Assistant professor \/ Senior research scientist<\/p>\n            <div class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-simple-cta wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-item-automated\">\n    <a\n        href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/people\/frederic-clavert\/\"\n        title=\"Assist. Prof Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric CLAVERT\"\n        class=\"link-text link-text--icon list-people__link link-absolute\"\n        target=\"\"\n    >\n        <span class=\"link-text__body\">\n            <span class=\"link-text__name\">Learn more<\/span>\n        <\/span>\n        <svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" class=\"icon icon-outline icon--arrow-right \"><use xlink:href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/themes\/unilux-theme\/assets\/images\/icons\/icons-outline.svg#icon--arrow-right\"><\/use><\/svg>    <\/a>\n<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/li><li class=\"w-full md:w-1\/2 p-16 wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-item-automated\"><div class=\"ulux-card card-people bg-theme\"><div class=\"list-people bg-theme\">\n    <div class=\"list-people__container\">\n        <div class=\"list-people__visual\">\n            <figure class=\"wp-block-dev4-reusable-blocks-image\">\n                <!-- Template Image Component: default -->\n<img decoding=\"async\" class=\"w-full\" width=\"\" height=\"\" rel=\"\" alt=\"Dr. Finola FINN\" src=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--thumbnail 150w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--medium 300w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--medium_large 768w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--large 1024w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--1536x1536 1536w,https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/en\/person-image\/NTAwODg2MzdfX0Zpbm9sYSBGSU5O--2048x2048 2048w\" loading=\"lazy\" \/><!-- end Image Component -->\n            <\/figure>\n        <\/div>\n        <div class=\"list-people__body\">\n            <h3 class=\"list-people__title\">Dr. Finola FINN<\/h3>\n            <p class=\"list-people__description\">Postdoctoral researcher<\/p>\n            <div class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-simple-cta wp-block-unilux-blocks-people-item-automated\">\n    <a\n        href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/people\/finola-finn\/\"\n        title=\"Dr. Finola FINN\"\n        class=\"link-text link-text--icon list-people__link link-absolute\"\n        target=\"\"\n    >\n        <span class=\"link-text__body\">\n            <span class=\"link-text__name\">Learn more<\/span>\n        <\/span>\n        <svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" class=\"icon icon-outline icon--arrow-right \"><use xlink:href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/themes\/unilux-theme\/assets\/images\/icons\/icons-outline.svg#icon--arrow-right\"><\/use><\/svg>    <\/a>\n<\/div>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<section class=\"section section wp-block-unilux-blocks-quick-link-discover-section\">\n    <div class=\"container xl:max-w-screen-xl\">\n        \n<h2 class=\"has-text-align-left wp-block-unilux-blocks-heading\"        id=\"discover-more\"\n    >\nDiscover more<\/h2>\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-quick-link-discover quick-link-list\">\n<li class=\"wp-block-unilux-blocks-quick-link-discover-item\">\n    <a\n                    href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/ai-at-c2dh\/\"\n                    class=\"quick-link\"\n            target=\"\"\n    >\n            <span class=\"quick-link__container\">\n                <span class=\"quick-link__text\">\n                    AI @ C\u00b2DH                <\/span>\n                <svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" class=\"icon icon-outline icon--arrow-right \"><use xlink:href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/wp-content\/themes\/unilux-theme\/assets\/images\/icons\/icons-outline.svg#icon--arrow-right\"><\/use><\/svg>            <\/span>\n    <\/a>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n    <\/div>\n<\/section><\/div><\/section>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Reflections by Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert and Finola Finn on the use of artificial intelligence for historical research.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":57,"featured_media":11207,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"featured_image_focal_point":{"x":0.57,"y":0.42},"show_featured_caption":false,"ulux_newsletter_groups":"","uluxPostTitle":"","uluxPrePostTitle":"","_trash_the_other_posts":false,"_price":"","_stock":"","_tribe_ticket_header":"","_tribe_default_ticket_provider":"","_tribe_ticket_capacity":"0","_ticket_start_date":"","_ticket_end_date":"","_tribe_ticket_show_description":"","_tribe_ticket_show_not_going":false,"_tribe_ticket_use_global_stock":"","_tribe_ticket_global_stock_level":"","_global_stock_mode":"","_global_stock_cap":"","_tribe_rsvp_for_event":"","_tribe_ticket_going_count":"","_tribe_ticket_not_going_count":"","_tribe_tickets_list":"[]","_tribe_ticket_has_attendee_info_fields":false},"articles-category":[472],"articles-topic":[405,431,392],"organisation":[224,221],"authorship":[57],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v22.3 (Yoast SEO v22.3) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Artificial intelligence and history: an introduction\u00a0 - C2DH EN<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/articles\/artificial-intelligence-and-history-introduction\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_GB\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Artificial intelligence and history: an introduction\u00a0\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Reflections by Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Clavert and Finola Finn on the use of artificial intelligence for historical research.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/www.uni.lu\/c2dh-en\/articles\/artificial-intelligence-and-history-introduction\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"C2DH 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